Ever wondered what the biggest buildings in the world are? As soon as there is the biggest building in the world, there seems to be a new one being built to be bigger!
Since ancient times, people have built structures that reach for the skies – from the steep spires of medieval towers to the grand domes of ancient cathedrals and mosques. Today the quest is to build the world’s tallest skyscrapers, such as Burj Khalifa in Dubai. Soaring above the rest, its decorative spire accounts for 29% of its total height – 4,000 tonnes of structural steel just for aesthetics.
Burj Khalifa isn’t unique in this respect. “Vanity height” – the extra height from a skyscraper’s highest occupied floor to its architectural top – shapes city skylines around the globe.
In a world where environmental concerns are paramount, is such architectural vanity justifiable? Research shows the pursuit of “vanity height” makes this a pressing issue. Even a modest spire increases the carbon emissions from the production of materials for a skyscraper’s structure by about 15%.
Building tall is not just about architecture; it’s big business. Being ranked among the world’s tallest buildings can transform an otherwise ordinary skyscraper into a globally recognised icon. This creates an incentive to add vanity height.
Maybe we should re-think the way we label a building the biggest in the world?
An Overview of the Global Construction Industry
The construction industry is critical in determining a country’s economic outlook as it moves various related industries, including the construction materials, commercial, and residential sectors. According to a report by Next Move Strategy Consulting, the global construction market was valued at $2.32 trillion in 2023. The market is expected to grow at a compound annual growth rate of 5.9% during the forecasted period to reach $3.58 trillion by 2030. Economic expansion is one of the leading factors driving growth in the industry.
The Asia-Pacific region is growing strongly due to heavy infrastructural investment from emerging economies, including India and China. On February 29, Reuters reported India, the 2nd fastest-growing economy in Asia, grew 8.4% from October 2023 to December 2023, beating the estimated growth of 6.6% for the quarter. The growth was mainly attributed to the country’s strong manufacturing and construction activity. Moreover, in another report by Reuters on February 1, the Indian Finance Minister Nirmala Sitharaman, while presenting the interim budget, unveiled the government’s plan to invest $134 billion in infrastructure development and long-term reforms to drive growth. This allocation was up by 11.1% year on year compared to the last budget.
Tallest buildings in the World
1. Burj Khalifa
Standard height: 828 meters (2,717 feet)
Total height: 829.8 meters
Floor count: 163
Observation decks: 448 m & 555 m
Year built: 2010
Uses: Residences, Hotel, Office, Observation, Communication
Location: Dubai
Burj Khalifa has been the tallest building in the world by any measurement since its completion in 2009, it is estimated that it still can keep holding this title for the next 3 to 4 years, then it will possibly be surpassed by Dubai Creek Tower which is located at a site only miles away from it. The Jeddah Tower in Saudi Arabia could also surpass it if the construction work continues.
The observation deck on Burj Khalifa is one of most visited tourist destinations in Dubai, the observatory named At The Top SKY on the 148th floor is still the tallest observation deck in the world.
2. Merdeka 118
Standard height & Total height: 678.9 meters (2,227 feet)
Roof height: 519 meters
Floor count: 118
Observation decks: 483 m & 566 m
Year built: 2024
Uses: Hotel, Office, Residences, Observation, Shopping center
Location: Kuala Lumpur
Merdeka 118 is a megatall skyscraper in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. The skyscraper was previously planned to be built to a height of 656 meters, to become the tallest building in Southeast Asia and the 2nd tallest building in the world, but the height turned out to be even higher than that.
There is a long spire mounted on the rooftop, it contributes a significant height to the building. Without the spire, the building would be 521 m tall. However, unlike other buildings’ spires, the spire of Merdeka 118 contains an observation deck at 566 meters high above the ground, and it will surpass the observation deck on Burj Khalifa to become the world’s highest observation deck once opened in late 2024.
3. Shanghai Tower
Standard height: 632 meters (2,073 feet)
Parapet-removed height: 583 meters Floor count: 128
Observation Deck: 552 m
Uses: Office, Observation, Hotel, Retail, Museum
Year built: 2015 Location: Shanghai
Shanghai Tower was completed in the beginning of 2015, since then it has been the tallest building in China.
Shanghai Tower has a multi-floor observation deck opened to public at its 118th and 119th floors, as of 2024 it’s the second tallest observation deck in the world, only after Burj Khalifa’s At The Top SKY. For more details check out the guide to visiting Shanghai Tower observation deck.
Since the spire of Ping An Finance Center in Shenzhen was canceled, which resulted in the building ends up being 599 meters tall (33 meters shorter than Shanghai Tower), and in April 2020, a new decree was issued to forbid skyscrapers in the country to be built over 500 meters, the planned heights of Wuhan Greenland Center, Suzhou Zhongnan Center, and Shimao Shenzhen-Hong Kong International Center are all reduced to below 500 meters from the originally planned 600+ meters, it can be sure that Shanghai Tower’s title of China’s Tallest Building will not be taken by other towers in the foreseeable future.
4. Abraj Al Bait
Standard height: 601 meters (1,971 feet) Floor count: 120
Year built: 2012 Location: Mecca
Uses: Hotel, Residences, Retail, Religious use, Telling time
This buildings complex is located in close proximity to the Grand Mosque in Mecca, the holiest place in Islam.
Abraj Al Bait consists of several high-rise buildings of different sizes, the highest one of them stands 601 meters tall and is called Makkah Royal Clock Tower, it is one of the only four buildings in the world that are categorized as megatall skyscrapers. Each of the 4 sides of the clock tower has a large clock, the clocks are currently the largest in the world.
A museum occupies the clock tower’s uppermost floors, containing an outdoor observation deck, which is right below the clocks.
5. Ping An International Finance Center
Standard height: 599 meters (1,965 feet)
Roof height: 589 meters
Observation deck: 541 meters
Floor count: 115
Year built: 2016
Location: Shenzhen
Uses: Office, Retail, Observation
Ping An Finance Center was once designed to be built to 660 meters with a spire on the top, set to become the tallest building in China, however there suddenly came out a flight issue, forcing the height restricted to be under 600 meters, so no spire was ever built atop its peak. Same thing had previously happened on Canton Tower in Guangzhou, which has a similar height, the difference is that Canton Tower’s spire was cut shorter after the completion.
The building has an observation deck on the 116th floor, it’s currently the 3rd highest observation deck in the world.
6. Goldin Finance 117
Standard height & Roof height: 597 meters (1,959 feet)
Floor count: 117
Year topped out: 2019
Uses: Office, Hotel, Residences, Observation, Retail
Location: Tianjin
Golden Finance 117 is still not completed, but had fully topped out in May 2019 after the installation of a diamond-shaped structure on the top of the building was completed. Although the tower is the 6th tallest building in the world, it actually has a taller concrete core than that of any other building in the world, and it’s the world’s tallest flat-roof building.
7. Lotte World Tower
Standard height: 555 meters (1,819 feet) Floor count: 123
Year built: 2016 Location: Seoul
Uses: Office, Hotel, Observation, Residence, Retail
Lotte World Tower is the tallest building in South Korea. The tower opened to the public on April 3rd, 2017, it has a total of 123 floors above ground, a multiple-floor observatory occupies the uppermost 7 floors of the tower, by contrast, in most cases the observation decks on skyscrapers only occupy one or two floors.
For more details check out the guide to visiting Lotte World Tower observation deck.
8. One World Trade Center
Standard height: 541 meters (1,776 feet)
Roof height: 417 meters
Floor count: 104
Year built: 2014
Uses: Office, Observation, Communication
Location: New York City
One World Trade Center is the tallest building in New York City and west hemisphere. Its roof height is 417 meters which just same as the North Tower of the original World Trade Center, but the spire is made longer, bringing its total height to 546 meters and 541 meters (1776 ft) by architectural height. This height is originated from the year of 1776 when United States Declaration of Independence was signed, many New York lovers complain that 1776 ft should be designed as the roof height, 417 m is a little short among today’s tallest buildings.
9. Chow Tai Fook Finance Center
Standard height: 530 meters (1739 feet)
Roof height: 530 meters
Floor count: 111
Year built: 2016
Uses: Office, Hotel, Residences
Location: Guangzhou
Briefly known as CTF Finance Center, this tower is named after its owner Chow Tai Fook Enterprises, which developed the tower via its subsidiary New World Development. It’s the first near-megatall building named after Chow Tai Fook, another same size tower also named after Chow Tai Fook was built in Tianjin in 2019, a 475m supertall tower is planned by Chow Tai Fook to be built in Wuhan.
The top floors of the building contain a hotel, which was the world’s highest hotel in 2019 and 2020, before the opening of J Hotel on Shanghai Tower.
10. Tianjin Chow Tai Fook Binhai Center
Standard height: 530 meters (1,739 feet)
Roof height: 480 meters
Floor count: 97
Year built: 2019
Uses: Office, Hotel, Residences
Location: Tianjin
Chow Tai Fook Binhai Center is the second supertall project named after Chow Tai Fook Enterprises.
The tower had fully topped out by the end of September 2017, and was complete on September 21, 2019.
The buildings listed above are the top 10 tallest buildings in the world, you might be surprised that many notable buildings you are familiar with are not listed, the worldwide rapid development of skyscrapers has made those buildings dropped out from the top 10, below are the buildings that succeed the top 10 tallest buildings with heights a bit shorter than the top 10.
Cities With The Most Skyscrapers
1. Kuala Lumpur
Height of 3rd tallest Building: 451.9 meters
Total Number of Tall Buildings: 173
Kuala Lumpur is the capital city of Malaysia. It ranks as the 1st city with the tallest buildings in the world. The Merdeka 118 is the tallest building in Kuala Lumpur and is 679 meters high. The city has around 173 tall buildings of more than 150 meters. Moreover, the Petronas Twin Towers stand as the 3rd tallest building in the city and is 451.9 meters high.
New York is among the top cities with the tallest buildings in the world, with 317 buildings having a height of more than 150 meters. Currently, the One World Trade Center is the city’s tallest building, with a height of approximately 541 meters. On January 27, CNN reported while New York and Chicago are recognized to have the ten tallest buildings in the US, a group of developers have proposed to build America’s tallest building in Oklahoma City. The proposed ‘Legends Tower’ will be approximately 581 meters high and more than double the height of the current tallest building in Oklahoma City, which is Devon Energy Center and is only 257 meters high.
Leading Construction Companies in the World
Vinci SA, Skanska AB, and China State Construction Engineering Corporation Limited are some of the leading construction companies in the world.
Vinci SA is a leading integrated construction and concessions company based in Paris, France. The company operates through its subsidiaries in energy, concessions, and construction businesses worldwide. Vinci SA’s construction portfolio includes transport system projects, public and private buildings, energy facilities, airports, and urban development. On April 19, Vinci SA announced the acquisition of the Northwest Parkway section of the Denver ring road in Colorado, USA, by its subsidiary Vinci Highways. The company successfully acquired 100% equity of NWP HoldCo LLC, the concession company for the Northwest Parkway, for approximately $1.2 billion. This deal is one of the major and first-ever acquisitions in the USA and is said to be a long-term and high-value asset for the company.
Skanska AB is one of the largest construction companies in the world. It is based in Stockholm, Sweden. The company operates through four business segments: construction, residential development, commercial property, and investment property. Skanska AB leads construction projects in Europe, the Nordic region, and the United States of America. On April 25, Skanska AB reported signing a contract with the Central Group to construct a residential complex in Prague, Czech Republic. The construction contract is worth CZK 1.3 billion and consists of 7 buildings of 6-12 floors each. The new residential complex will have 373 apartments and a 3-story underground parking facility. The project will commence in May 2024 and is expected to be completed by the autumn of 2026.
China State Construction Engineering Corporation Limited is another leading construction and investment company based in Beijing, China. Through its various subsidiaries, the company engages in construction engineering, infrastructure construction and investment, real estate development, and construction design projects around the globe. On April 22, China State Construction Engineering Corporation Limited announced the launch of multiple projects in Kazakhstan. The projects under construction and ready for commencement include the TKU Highway Project, the refurbishment of the asphalt station, and the KB national highway reconstruction. The CSCEC project team is at the site conducting project operations.
With this context, let’s look at the 25 cities with the tallest buildings in the world.
A close up of a bustling financial district with a myriad of skyscrapers, representing the small capitalization companies located in developed countries outside the US.
Our Methodology
To curate the list of 25 cities with the tallest buildings in the world, we sourced our data from the Council of Tall Buildings and Urban Habitat (CTBUH). CTBUH is one of the leading non-profit organizations that compile data on the tallest buildings in the world. For this article, we used the cities by the number of 150m+ buildings dataset. From the dataset, we shortlisted cities with the most 300m+ buildings and ranked them by the height of their 3rd tallest building.
CTBUH defines tall buildings as those with a height between 150 to 300 meters, supertall buildings with a height between 300 to 600 meters, and a megatall building with a height greater than or equal to 600 meters. We chose the height of the 3rd tallest building as our primary metric and the total number of tall buildings (150m+) as our secondary metric to ensure we weren’t including cities with only one or two supertall buildings; instead, those with an overall greater number of tall and super tall buildings. It is important to note that we have only considered completed buildings and have not included those still under construction.
Please also note that the total number of tall buildings represents the sum of all buildings in a city that are complete and have a height of more than 150 meters.
20 Cities with the Tallest Buildings in the World
20. Shenyang
Height of 3rd tallest Building: 318 meters
Total Number of Tall Buildings: 100
Shenyang ranks as the 20th city with tallest buildings in the world. It is the capital city of Liaoning, the northeastern province of China. The city has 100 tall buildings with a height of more than 150 meters. The Forum 66 Tower 1 stands as the tallest building in the city, with a height of approximately 351 meters. Moreover, the Baoneng Shenyang Global Financial Centre Tower 2 is the 3rd tallest building in the city and has a height of 318 meters.
19. Abu Dhabi
Height of 3rd tallest Building: 324 meters
Total Number of Tall Buildings: 44
Abu Dhabi is the capital of the United Arab Emirates and ranks as the 19th city with the tallest buildings in the world. Burj Mohammed Bin Rashid stands as the tallest building in the city and is approximately 381 meters high. The city has a total of 44 tall buildings, and the Landmark is the 3rd tallest building in the city, with a height of 324 meters.
18. Changsha
Height of 3rd tallest Building: 330 meters
Total Number of Tall Buildings: 65
Changsha ranks as the 18th city with the tallest buildings in the world. It is the capital city of the Hunan province of China. The Changsha IFS Tower T1 is the tallest building in the city and is approximately 452 meters high. In addition, the Changsha IFS Tower T1 stands as the third tallest building in the city and is approximately 330 meters high.
17. Nanning
Height of 3rd tallest Building: 330 meters
Total Number of Tall Buildings: 82
Nanning is another Chinese city and the capital of the Guangxi region. The city has 82 tall buildings that are more than 150 meters in height. The Guangxi China Resources Tower is recognized as the tallest building in the city and has a height of 403 meters. The city ranks as the 17th city with tallest buildings in the world, with 330 meters high Guangxi Financial Investment Center being its 3rd tallest building.
16. Busan
Height of 3rd tallest Building: 333.1 meters
Total Number of Tall Buildings: 77
Busan is a large port city in South Korea that ranks as the 16th city with the tallest buildings in the world. LCT The Sharp Landmark Tower stands as the tallest building in the city, with a height of 412 meters. The city has 77 tall buildings, whereas the LCT The Sharp Residential Tower B ranks as the 3rd tallest building in the city, with a height of 333.1 meters.
15. Tianjin
Height of 3rd tallest Building: 336.9 meters
Total Number of Tall Buildings: 76
Tianjin is another Chinese city and a major port city in northeastern China. The city ranks 15th on our list of 25 cities with tallest buildings in the world. The Tianjin CTF Finance Centre is recognized as the tallest building in the city, with a height of 530 meters. The city has 76 tall buildings, and the Tianjin World Financial Center is the 3rd tallest building in the city, with a height of 336.9 meters.
14. Wuxi
Height of 3rd tallest Building: 339 meters
Total Number of Tall Buildings: 30
Wuxi is a Chinese city that ranks as the 14th city with the tallest buildings in the world. The city has 30 tall buildings, with the Wuxi International Finance Square, Longxi International Hotel, and the Wuxi Suning Plaza 1 being the top 3 tallest buildings with a height of 339, 328, and 328 meters, respectively.
13. Jinan
Height of 3rd tallest Building: 339 meters
Total Number of Tall Buildings: 38
Jinan is the capital city of the Shandong Province, China. The city has a total of 38 tall buildings, with the Ping An Finance Center Tower 1, which has a height of 360 meters, being the tallest building in the world. Moreover, the YunDing Tower is recognized as the 3rd tallest building in the world, with a height of 339 meters.
12. Moscow
Height of 3rd tallest Building: 345 meters
Total Number of Tall Buildings: 49
Moscow is one of the tallest cities in Russia and ranks as the 12th city with the tallest buildings in the world. The Federation Tower stands as the tallest building in the city, with a height of 374 meters. The city has 49 tall buildings, and the NEVA Towers 2 is recognized as the 3rd tallest building in the city with a height of 345 meters.
11. Chongqing
Height of 3rd tallest Building: 354.5 meters
Total Number of Tall Buildings: 145
Chongqing, another Chinese city, ranks 11th on our list. The city has 145 tall buildings over 150 meters in height. The International Land-Sea Center, Raffles City Chongqing T3N, and the Raffles City Chongqing T4N are the top 3 tallest buildings in the city with a height of 458.2, 354.5, and 354.5 meters respectively.
10. Chicago
Height of 3rd tallest Building: 362.9 meters
Total Number of Tall Buildings: 137
Chicago makes it to the top 10 cities with tallest buildings in the world. It is a city situated in Illinois, United States. The city has 137 tall buildings, with the Willis Tower being the tallest building, which has a height of 442 meters. Moreover, the St. Regis Chicago stands as the 3rd tallest building in Chicago, with a height of 362.9 meters.
9. Nanjing
Height of 3rd tallest Building: 368.1 meters
Total Number of Tall Buildings: 73
Nanjing is a Chinese city and the capital of Jiangsu province. The city has 73 tall buildings that are more than 150 meters in height. The Zifeng Tower is the tallest building in Nanjing and is 450 meters high.
8. Hong Kong
Height of 3rd tallest Building: 373.9 meters
Total Number of Tall Buildings: 554
Hong Kong is a special administrative region of China. It ranks as the 8th city with the tallest buildings in the world. The city has 554 tall buildings, with the tallest building, the International Commerce Centre, having a height of 484 meters. The Central Plaza is recognized as the 3rd tallest building in the city and has a height of 373.9 meters.
7. Wuhan
Height of 3rd tallest Building: 376 meters
Total Number of Tall Buildings: 168
Wuhan is another Chinese City that ranks on our list of cities with the tallest buildings in the world. With a height of 476 meters, the Wuhan Greenland Center stands as the tallest building in the city. The 3rd tallest building in the city is 1 Corporate Avenue, which has a height of approximately 376 meters.
6. Guangzhou
Height of 3rd tallest Building: 390.2 meters
Total Number of Tall Buildings: 191
Guangzhou ranks as the 6th city with tallest buildings in the world. It is a sprawling port city in China, situated in the northwest of Hong Kong. The city has 191 tall buildings with heights of more than 150 meters. The CITIC Plaza is recognized as the 3rd tallest building in the city, with a height of 390.2 meters.
5. Shenzhen
Height of 3rd tallest Building: 392.5 meters
Total Number of Tall Buildings: 410
Shenzhen, a southeastern city in China, has made it to the top 5 cities with the tallest buildings in the world. The Ping An Finance Center is the tallest building in the city, with a height of approximately 599.1 meters. The city is recognized as among the tallest in China, with around 410 tall buildings over 150 meters high.
4. Dubai
Height of 3rd tallest Building: 413.4 meters
Total Number of Tall Buildings: 263
Dubai is a famous city in the United Arab Emirates. The city is home to the tallest building in the world, the Burj Khalifa, which has a height of approximately 828 meters. Apart from the Burj Khalifa, the city has around 263 buildings over 150 meters tall. Moreover, the Princess Tower stands as the 3rd tallest building in the city and has a height of 413.4 meters.
3. Shanghai
Height of 3rd tallest Building: 420.5 meters
Total Number of Tall Buildings: 189
Shanghai is one of the biggest cities in China and is also recognized as one of the global financial hubs. The city has 189 tall buildings, with Shanghai Tower, which has a height of 632 meters, being the tallest building in the city.
2. New York
Height of 3rd tallest Building: 435.3 meters
Total Number of Tall Buildings: 317
New York is one of the largest cities in the US. The city has 317 tall buildings that are more than 150 meters in height. The One World Trade Center stands as the tallest building in the city with a height of 541 meters, whereas 111 West 57th Street is recognized as the 3rd tallest building with a height of 435.3 meters.
1. Kuala Lumpur
Height of 3rd tallest Building: 451.9 meters
Total Number of Tall Buildings: 173
Kuala Lumpur is the capital city of Malaysia. It ranks as the 1st city with the tallest buildings in the world. The Merdeka 118 is the tallest building in Kuala Lumpur and is 679 meters high. The city has around 173 tall buildings of more than 150 meters. Moreover, the Petronas Twin Towers stand as the 3rd tallest building in the city and is 451.9 meters high.
A matter of measurement
The way we measure the height of skyscrapers is at the heart of this issue. The Council on Tall Buildings and Urban Habitat is the ultimate authority on skyscraper heights. It bestows the coveted title of “world’s tallest building”.
Historically, there wasn’t much debate over skyscraper heights as early buildings typically had flat roofs. The first significant issue arose in 1929 when the Chrysler Building in New York City installed a last-minute spire, securing the self-proclaimed title of the “world’s tallest building” over the Bank of Manhattan.
The Council on Tall Buildings and Urban Habitat, founded in 1969, established criteria in the early 1970s that included decorative spires. This formalised a practice that would be contentious time and again.
A landmark moment in the council’s history was the 1998 showdown between Petronas Towers in Kuala Lumpur and Sears Tower in Chicago, now known as Willis Tower. Imagine these two giants side by side: the pointy spires of the Petronas Towers, with 88 floors, and the flat-topped Sears Tower, with 108 floors. But the council uses “height to architectural top”, which includes decorative spires. As a result, it declared Petronas Towers the tallest building in the world, outstripping Sears Tower for the title.
Back in Chicago, this was not a popular verdict. Picture the folks on the 108th floor of the Sears Tower looking down at the celebrations on the 88th floor of the Petronas Towers, perplexed by how those extra metres of spire made the difference.
Even if extra height does not secure a place among the world’s top 100 tallest buildings, height still matters. Skyscrapers gain valuable prestige as the tallest in their city, region or country, or by earning use-specific accolades like “world’s highest restaurant” or “world’s highest religious space”.
The hidden cost of vanity height
Sixty years ago, the renowned Bangladeshi-American architect and engineer Fazlur Rahman Khan demonstrated the exponential impact of a building’s height on the amount of material needed to build it. Indeed, doubling the height of a building could triple the structural materials required. A stronger structure, using more materials, is needed to withstand greater wind and earthquake loads on taller buildings.
This means there’s a large “embodied carbon premium for height”. This premium is the additional greenhouse gas emissions from producing the extra materials needed for a taller skyscraper.
A telling example from our study shows that even a modest spire, making up 16% of a building’s total height, can increase the embodied carbon of a 90-storey skyscraper by 14%. In maximising the building’s height for aesthetic, status or financial reasons, designers are prioritising these concerns over environmental sustainability.
We took a detailed look at Dubai, a city celebrated for its towering skyline. We found the collective vanity height of its 100 tallest buildings adds up to more than 3.5 kilometres.
We estimate these decorative elements contributed at least 300,000 tonnes of greenhouse gas emissions. That’s both the direct embodied carbon of the spires and, much more importantly, the embodied carbon added by reinforcing the buildings to support the extra structural loads.
To put this impact into perspective, 300,000 tonnes of emissions is equivalent to the embodied carbon associated with building about 2,400 average Australian homes. It’s a hefty price to pay, simply to adorn 100 skyscrapers with pointy hats that inflate their heights and status in global rankings.
Redefine heights to set more sustainable standards
The Council on Tall Buildings and Urban Habitat, which champions the motto “Towards Sustainable Vertical Urbanism”, has a crucial opportunity to lead change. What if it revised how we measure and rank tall buildings to better reflect this commitment to sustainability?
In light of our findings, we call on the council to remove the incentive for vanity height. We propose the “height to highest occupied floor” be adopted as the main standard for ranking skyscrapers by height.
Such a change may be controversial. Burj Khalifa would keep its title as the world’s tallest, but One World Trade Center with a vanity height of 155 metres, for example, would drop nine places, losing its status as the tallest in North America.
However, for every building that falls in the rankings, others will rise. Our research shows there are more winners than losers among the 100 tallest buildings worldwide. So support for this change could outweigh resistance.
Cities continue to grow and environmental challenges are becoming more acute. The need to re-evaluate our approach to architectural design is becoming ever more pressing. In particular, vanity architecture features like excessive decorative spires burden not only our skylines but also our environment.
